HPL – Basic Aviation Psycology – EASA: 040 03 00 00

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040 03 01 00 Human information processing

040 03 01 01 Attention and vigilance

(01) Differentiate between ‘attention’ and ‘vigilance’.

Attention is focusing resources on one set of events to the exclusion of others. Vigilance is sustained attention over time.

(02) Differentiate between ‘selected’ and ‘divided’ attention.

Selected – processing information from one event. Divided – Rapid attention switching

(03) Define ‘hypovigilance’.

Low levels

(04) Identify the factors that may affect the state of vigilance.(6)

Anxiety, motivation, stress, expectation, arousal and automation.

(05) List the factors that may forestall hypovigilance during flight.(3)

Take active measures, what-ifs, mental calculations.

(06) Indicate the signs of reduced vigilance.

Slow reactions, failure to notice stimuli, yawning, slower blinking, cognitive absence, micro sleeps, delusions: false alarms. (7)

(07) List the factors that affect a person’s level of attention. (4)

Saliency of the stimulus, workload, tunnelling of vision, state of vigilance

040 03 01 02 Perception

(01) Define ‘Name the basis of the perceptual process.

The intensity of the stimulus and processing it mentally.

(02) Describe the mechanism of perception (‘bottom-up’/‘top-down’ process).

Bottom-up, sensation is perception and constructs a view. Top-down, A hypothesis which is confirmed by senses or information.

(03) Illustrate why perception is subjective and state the relevant factors that influence interpretation of perceived information.

Influenced by past experience

(04) Describe some basic perceptual illusions. (5)

Visual, vestibular, proprioception, motion, phase of flight

(05) Illustrate some basic perceptual concepts.

Can be rigid and unsusceptible to change. Mental models can be very persuasive. Influence on perception includes ambiguity, perception and expectation.

(06) Give examples where perception plays a decisive role in flight safety.

Orientating yourself to another aircraft

(07) Stress how persuasive and believable mistaken perception can manifest itself both for an individual and a group.

040 03 01 03 Memory

(01) Explain the link between the types of memory (to include sensory, working/short-term and long-term memory).

All retain information for varying periods and is transferred along the chain if it needs to be kept.

(02) Describe the differences between the types of memory in terms of capacity and retention time.

Sensory, one piece for each sense for a short period. Working, Limited capacity for a few seconds +/- 5 . Long, Large capacity for a long time.

(03) Justify the importance of sensory-store memories in processing information.

So it can be referred to if there is insufficient capacity to process immediately

(04) State the average maximum number of separate items that may be held in working memory (5 ± 2).

(05) Stress how interruption can affect short-term/working memory.

(06) Give examples of items that are important for pilots to hold in working memory during flight.

ATIS while writing down, clearances, general observations to be processed.

(07) Describe how the capacity of the working-memory store may be increased.

Chunking

(08) State the subdivisions of long-term memory and give examples of their content.

Semantic
Accumulated knowledge, general knowledge.
Episodic
Memories and experiences

(09) Explain that skills are kept primarily in the long-term memory.

(10) Describe amnesia and how it affects memory.

Inability to recall or recognise events. Temporary or permanent

(11) Name the common problems with both the long- and short-term memories and the best methods to try to counteract them.

1
Items may not be recallable
2
Adversely affected by high emotional arousal
3
Recall limited when there is not a lot of context or connections associated
4
Short term is limited and fragile.

Counteracting methods.

Short. Chunking, rote learning, writing down. Long, mnemonics and practice.

040 03 01 04 Response selection

Learning principles and techniques

(01)

Explain and distinguish between the following basic forms of learning:

Classic
Subconscious by association. Hot – Ouch
Operant conditioning
Conscious learning and practice, arresting a stall.
Insight
Understanding and studying
Modelling
Imitating

(02)

Recognise pilot-related examples as behaviouristic, cognitive or modelling forms of learning.

(03)

State the factors that are necessary for and promote the quality of learning:

I
intrinsic motivation;
H
good mental health;
R
rehearsals for improvement of memory;
C
consciousness;
V
vigilance;
A
application in practical exercises.

(04)

Explain ways to facilitate the memorisation of information with the following learning techniques:

mnemonics;
One word to remember a sequence.
mental training;
Um…

(05)

Describe the advantage of planning and anticipation of future actions:

— define the term ‘skills’;

Expertise at a task

— state the three phases of learning a skill

(Anderson: cognitive, associative and autonomous phase).

(06) Explain the term ‘motor programme’ or ‘mental schema’.

Motor program
Un or subconscious, not consciously monitored.
Mental schema
Recall and recognition.

(07) Describe the advantages and disadvantages of mental schemas.

A; Reduces conscious processing D; Not consciously monitored

(08) Explain the Rasmussen model which describes the guidance of a pilot’s behaviour in different situations.

S
Skill mode; no conscious monitoring, smooth delivery of physical actions.
R
Rule mode; Execution of actions based on learnt rules.
K
Knowledge mode; A new situation responded to by past knowledge

(09) State the possible problems or risks associated with skill-, rule- and knowledge-based behaviour.

Skill mode
Action slip, environmental capture
Rule mode
Error of commission and departure from the rules
Knowledge mode
Conformation bias, overconfidence, lack of awareness.

Motivation
(10) Define ‘motivation’.

Initiation, direction and energisation of human behaviour.

(11) Explain the relationship between motivation and learning.

Motivation can help or hinder (unmotivated or too keen) learning. Over motivation can focus attention to the detriment of the bigger picture.

(12) Explain the problems of over-motivation, especially in the context of the extreme need to achieve.

As above

040 03 02 00 Human error and reliability

040 03 02 01 Reliability of human behaviour

(01) Name and explain the factors that influence human reliability.

O
Organisation – The quality of the roles and support given
W
Working conditions – Comfort, noise etc.
MM
Man machine interface – Design
PP
Procedures and plans – SOPs
G
Number of simultaneous goals – Overload
T
Available time – Rushed
T
Time of day – circadian low
T
Training and expertise – Level of..
C
Crew collaboration CRM

040 03 02 02 Mental models and situation awareness

(01) Define the term ‘situation awareness’.

Creating and maintaining an accurate mental model of your situation.

(02) List the cues that indicate loss of situation awareness and name the steps to regain it.

F
Events in control of you
T
Things surprise you
M
Matching observed data with expected data.

(03) List the factors that influence one’s situation awareness both positively and negatively, and stress the importance of situation awareness in the context of flight safety.

W
Workload, reduce if possible
P
Pace of events
A
Attention tunneling
D
Decision making

(04) Define the term ‘mental model’ in relation to a surrounding complex situation.

Predetermined mental picture of reality

(05) Describe the advantages/disadvantages of mental models.

Speed/relatively immune from correction

(06) Explain the relationship between personal ‘mental models’ and the creation of cognitive illusions.

The brain may adapt a metal model quickly when confronted with conflicting information to fit in with ‘reality’. **is this bollocks?’

040 03 02 03 Theory and model of human error

(01) Explain the concept of the ‘error chain’.

A sequence of independent errors whose effects are cumulative.

(02) Differentiate between an isolated error and an error chain.

Mishearing a frequency

(03) Distinguish between the main forms/types of errors (i.e. slips, faults, omissions and violations).

S
Action slips; Correct intention but failure of execution
F
Broken hardware
O
Omissions, forgetting
V
Violation, intentional deviation

(04) Discuss the above errors and their relevance in flight.

Have a think…!

(05) Distinguish between an active and a latent error, and give examples.

Active, short lived relating to something specific immediate effect. Latent, difficult to pick up, systemic or operational.

040 03 02 04 Error generation

(01) Distinguish between internal and external factors in error generation.

Internal is individual cognitive factors, external is anything um, external.

(02) Identify possible sources of internal error generation.

Perception, memory, distraction, motivation, low arousal, fatigue, skill deterioration.

(03) Define and discuss the two errors associated with motor programmes (action slip and environmental capture).

Action slip
Correct intention wrongly executed – Flaps instead of gear.
Environmental capture
An action executed because of familiar external conditions – lower flaps when looking to make a glide approach. When flying a different type, I raised the 3rd stage of flaps too early on a

(04) List the three main sources of external error generation in the flight crew compartment.

S
Stressors
O
Organisational
E
Ergonomics
W
Workload

(05)

Give examples to illustrate the following factors in external error generation in the flight crew compartment:

— ergonomics;

Badly design cockpit

— economics;

Corners cut with equipment.

— social environment.

Social norms or stigma

(06) Name the major goals in the design of human-centred human–machine interfaces.

Make the machine suit the human rather than the other way round.

(07) Define the term ‘error tolerance’.

Design which reduces impact of an error.

(08) List and describe the strategies that are used to reduce human error.

C
Cause removal
P
Prevention
A
Automation
D
Detection programs
R
Recovery techniques
T
Tolerant systems
S
Safety audits (LOSA)
FO
Flight OPSs Quality assurance programs (FOQA)
E
Evidence based training

(09) Describe the advantage of planning and the anticipation of future actions.

040 03 03 00 Decision-making

040 03 03 01 Decision-making concepts

(01) Define the terms ‘deciding’ and ‘decision-making’.

Deciding, actively choosing between options. Decision making, Choosing between possible courses of action.

(02) Describe the major factors on which decision-making should be based during the course of a flight.

The aim, available information and options and the consequences

(03) Describe the main human attributes with regard to decision-making.

Humans are able to analyse and use judgement.

Humans are good at creative decisions.

(04) Discuss the nature of bias and its influence on the decision-making process.

Bias is favouring one channel of reasoning over another.

(05) Describe the main error sources and limits in an individual’s decision-making mechanism.

High workload

(06) State the factors upon which an individual’s risk assessment is based.

I
Identification of potential threats
P
Probability of the threat occuring
C
Consequences

(07) Explain the relationship between risk assessment, commitment and pressure of time in decision-making strategies.

When risk is low and time pressure is high, quick decisions are likely based on past experience on the basis that a timely decision is better than no decision.

(08) Explain the risks associated with dispersion or channelised attention during the application of procedures requiring a high workload within a short time frame (e.g. a go-around).

Multiple decisions are needed and there is a risk on insufficient attention for individual tasks.

(09) Describe the positive and negative influences exerted by other group members on an individual’s decision- making process (risky shift).

A good group can produce more effective decisions however they can lead to riskier decisions being made.

(10)

Explain the general idea behind the creation of a model for decision-making based upon:

— define problem

Identify the most important/urgent problem Specify the aim or objective. Assess the time available

— collection of information;

Collect information from every available source Obtain inputs from other members of the crew

— risk assessment;

um…

— development of options;

Think through every option to its logical conclusion

— evaluation of options;

Weigh and compare options

— decision;

Select the best option and decide

— implementation;

Supervise and monitor the execution of the decision. Assign tasks.

— consequences;

Monitor and evaluate consequences

— review and feedback.

Review whether the situation remains the same and that the decision is still valid. Return to step 1

040 03 04 00 Avoiding and managing errors: cockpit management

040 03 04 01 Safety awareness

(01) Justify the need for being aware of not only one’s own performance but that of others before and during a flight and the possible consequences or risks.

To reinforce the advantages of multi-crew operations.

040 03 04 02 Coordination (multi-crew concepts)

(01) Name the objectives of the multi-crew concept.

Cooperation and communication

(02) State and explain the elements of multi-crew concepts.

Redundancy and and division of responsibility

(03) Describe the concepts of ‘standard operating procedures’ (SOPs), checklists and crew briefings.

Reduction in ambiguity and enables different crews to work together and know where they stand.

(04) Describe the purpose of and procedure for crew briefings.

Reinforce and vocalise what is expected and when.

(05) Describe the purpose of and procedure for checklists.

To ensure the aircraft is operated consistently and in accordance with the manufacturer and operator.

(06) Describe the function of communication in a coordinated team.

Exchange of information pertinent to streamlined operation.

(07) Explain the advantages of SOPs.

Contribute to avoiding threats and errors. Standardise procedures reducing ambiguity.

(08) Explain how SOPs contribute to avoiding, reducing and managing threats and errors.

Facilitates good cooperation, communication.

(09) Explain potential threats of SOPs, for example during company or type conversion (e.g. motor programmes, company culture, hazardous attitudes, developed habits).

Become habits over time and becomes a motor reaction which is undesirable when changing airline or aircraft. Especially under high workload.

040 03 04 03 Cooperation

(01) Distinguish between cooperation and coaction.

Coaction is members working towards the same objective but cooperation includes communication and sharing too and is better for optimum performance.

(02) Define the term ‘group’.

Two or more with shared objectives

(03) Illustrate the influence of interdependence in a group.

Healthy communicating and sharing information and tasks

(04) List the advantages and disadvantages of teamwork.

A: better decision making; defence against errors; reduced workload; higher capacity for multiple tasks; D: Risky shift; conflict; slower decision making

(05) Explain the term ‘synergy’.

Product go the whole is more then the sum of the parts.

(06) Define the term ‘cohesion’.

The degree to which the group stays together

(07) Define the term ‘groupthink’.

The desire to reach a unanimous decision overrides proper process.

(08) State the essential conditions for good teamwork.

Good leadership; mutual respect; well-defined roles; individuals matched to their roles.

(09) Explain the function of role and norm in a group.

Role: Expected part to play. Norm: unstated behaviour expectations.

(10) Name the different role patterns which occur in a group situation.

Status may elevate roll or undermine

(11) Explain how behaviour can be affected by the following factors:

— persuasion;

High status can equal high persuasion

— conformity;

Desire to conform overwhelms judgement.

— compliance;

Authority gradient can trump correct response

— obedience.

Doing as your told even when wrong.

(12) Distinguish between status and role.

Status is social, role is assigned.

(13) Stress the inherent dangers of a situation where there is a mix of role and status within the flight crew compartment.

A mismatch can lead to conflict or breakdown in function.

(14) Explain the terms ‘leadership’ and ‘followership’.

Leadership: Influencing thoughts and ideas by example. Fellowship: complimenting the leader for the greater good.

(15) Describe the trans-cockpit authority gradient and its affiliated leadership styles (i.e. autocratic, laissez-faire and synergistic).

A high gradient of status, ability and role can affect productivity.

Laissez-faire
Remains passive.

Allows other members of the crew freedom in decision making.

Makes few suggestions.

Makes neither positive or negative judgements.

Encourages a relaxed and laid-back atmosphere in the cockpit with communications leaning towards non-professional subjects.

Has a primary aim to please the rest of the crew.
Autocratic
Decides and imposes his/her decisions without consultation.

Takes no account of the opinions of the other members of the crew.

Rarely delegates.

Makes general comments which teach nothing.

Does not listen and is isolated from the rest of the crew.

Considers forcefully made suggestions as either criticism or insubordination

Encourages a tense and non-communicative atmosphere in the cockpit.
Synergistic
Leads by example.

Motivates the crew.

Develops the skills of the crew.

Supports team working.

Clearly communicates intentions and required standards.

Monitors the crew performance and gives constructive advice to the crew members.

Coordinates interrelated activities concerning the flight.

Listens to the rest of the crew and looks upon their suggestions as helpful.

Makes decisions with the help and active participation of the other crew members.

Makes a plan of action defined by the group.

Delegates responsibilities and actions.

Shares information and explains decisions.

Tries not to over-participate leaving each member of the crew to show their worth and capabilities.

Works to maintain a positive, cordial and professional cockpit atmosphere throughout the flight.

Openly shows appreciation for work well done.

Debriefs the crew and encourages ideas for improvements.

(16) Name the most important attributes of a positive leadership style.

P+ and G+. Balance between crew and task. Maximise crew respect and commitment. Positive group dynamic.

040 03 04 04 Communication

(01) Define the term ‘communication’.

The exchange of information between individuals

(02) List the most basic components of interpersonal communication.

Transmitter – message – receiver.

(03) Explain the advantages of in-person two-way communication as opposed to one-way communication.

Exchange of infomation

(04) Explain the four elements of a great speech:

— a great person;

— a noteworthy event;

— a compelling message;

— a masterful delivery.

(05) Name the importance of non-verbal communication.

Can contain as much if not more information than verbal

(06) Describe the general aspects of non-verbal communication.

75% is non verbal

(07) Describe the advantages/disadvantages of implicit and explicit communication.

Explicit- Unambiguous, yet imperious. Implicit – subtle but ambiguous

(08) Describe the advantages and possible problems of using ‘social’ and ‘professional’ language in high- and low-workload situations.

Professional preferable in all but the least demanding situations

(09) Name and explain the major obstacles to effective communication.

Side by side seating

(10) Explain the difference between intrapersonal and interpersonal conflict.

Intra-personal – conflict within. Interpersonal – conflict with others

(11) Describe the escalation process in human conflict.

1, problem, 2. difference, 3. confrontation, 4. fight or flight, 5. combat, 6. Headbutt

(12) List the typical consequences of conflicts between crew members.

Breakdown in communication and cooperation, poor performance and decision making, lack of teamwork.

(13) Explain the following terms as part of the communication practice with regard to preventing or resolving conflicts:

— inquiry;

Ask open-ended questions

— active listening;

Listen, don’t just prepare next statement.

— advocacy;

Present rational argument

— feedback;

Politely !

— metacommunication;

Restrict negative non-verbal cues

— negotiation.

Compromise where possible

(14) Describe the limitations of communication in situations of high workload in the flight crew compartment in view of listening, verbal, non-verbal and visual effects.

040 03 05 00 Human behaviour

040 03 05 01 Personality, attitude and behaviour

(01) Describe the factors that determine an individual’s behaviour.

Personality, attitude, prevailing situation and influence

(02) Define and distinguish between ‘personality’, ‘attitude’ and ‘behaviour’.

Personality: set of characteristics called traits. Attitude: Predisposed way to behave. Behaviour: how a person acts.

(03) State the origin of personality and attitude.

Childhood, schooling or significant times, training.

(04) State that with behaviour good and bad habits can be formed.

(05) Explain how behaviour is generally a product of personality, attitude and the environment to which one was exposed at significant moments (childhood, schooling and training).

As above

(06) State that personality differences and selfish attitude may have effects on flight crew performance.

040 03 05 02 Individual differences in personality and motivation

(01) Describe the individual differences in personality by means of a common trait model (e.g. Eysenck’s personality factors) and use it to describe today’s ideal pilot.

Allow one to define a personality. None of the extremes suit pilots. The stable extrovert is ideal.

Self-concept

(02) Define the term ‘self-concept’ and the role it plays in any change of personality.

How you see yourself. Personality changes when the difference between self-concept and the ideal self changes.

(03) Explain how a self-concept of underconfidence may lead to an outward show of aggression and self- assertiveness.

Self-discipline

(04) Define ‘self-discipline’ and justify its importance for flight safety.

To consciously curb hazardous attitudes.

040 03 05 03 Identification of hazardous attitudes (error proneness)

(01) Explain dangerous attitudes in aviation:

— ”Anti-authority;

— MMacho; Excessive self-esteem, superior to others.

— I

Impulsivity; Failure of self control

— I

Invulnerability; Can’t happen to me attitude

— C

Complacency; Contentment and over confidence.

— R

Resignation. Belief in little influence over events.

(02) Describe the personality, attitude and behaviour patterns of an ideal crew member.

Conscientious; self controlled; stable; slightly extroverted; agreeable.

(03) Summarise how a person’s attitude influences their work in the flight crew compartment.

Good attitude encourages good teamwork, reduces risk of conflict and promotes corporation.

040 03 06 00 Human overload and underload

040 03 06 01 Arousal

(01) Explain the term ‘arousal’.

Physiological or psychological excitement

(02) Describe the relationship between arousal and performance.

Make the individual more sensitive to external events and able to react or perform better.

(03) Explain the circumstances under which underload may occur and its possible dangers.

Reduction in communication and monitoring skills to the point of being ineffective.

040 03 06 02 Stress

(01) Explain the term ‘stress’ and why stress is a natural human reaction.

Heightened state of arousal. Prepares the mind and body for action.

(02) State that the physiological response to stress is generated by the ‘fight or flight’ response.

General adaption syndrome.

(03) Describe the function of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) in stress response.

ANS prepares the body for action; increased pulse; breathing; muscle tension; reduced saliva, loss of appetite; high alert and energy.

(04) Explain the relationship between arousal and stress.

Stress is a heightened state of arousal.

(05) State the relationship between stress and performance.

A certain level of stress increases performance.

(06) State the basic categories of stressors.

Occupational; domestic; physiological; psychological.

(07) List and discuss the major environmental sources of stress in the flight crew compartment.

Temperature; humidity; noise; vibration; aural.

(08) Discuss the concept of ‘break point’ with regard to stress, overload and performance.

Performance rapidly deteriorates beyond.

(09) Name the principal causes of domestic stress.

Death; divorce; separation; injury or illness

(10) State that the stress experienced as a result of particular demands varies among individuals.

Individuals have different levels of coping mechanism for different events.

(11) Explain the factors that lead to differences in the levels of stress experienced by individuals.

Perception of demand and ability.

(12) List the factors that influence the tolerance of stressors.

Natural calmness; maturity; effective coping mechanisms; confidence and concentration.

(13) State that stress is a result of perceived demands and perceived ability.

Above

(14) Explain the relationship between stress and anxiety.

High stress may cause high anxiety.

(15) Describe the effects of anxiety on human performance.

Anxiety degrades performance.

(16) State the general effect of acute stress on people.

Increase in: respiration; pulse; blood sugar; blood flow to brain.

(17) Describe the relationship between stress, arousal and vigilance.

Cumulative moving through.

(18) State the general effect of chronic stress and the biological reaction by means of the three stages of the general adaptation syndrome (Selye): alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.

Alarm
Initial shock causing acute stress
Resistance
Corticosteroids released, raised blood flow, blood sugar preserved, fat made available for conversion to sugar.
Exhaustion
fat used, blood sugar level lowers

(19) Explain the differences between psychological, psychosomatic and somatic stress reactions.

Physiological
Restlessness, nervousness, excitement or anxiety.
Psychosomatic
Physiological changes caused by stress: coronary heart disease, peptic pulsars, raised blood pressure.
Somatic
Autonomic physiological response. E.g alarm reaction.

(20) Name the typical common physiological and psychological symptoms of human overload.

Tunnelling; incapacitation; withdrawal; ability to communicate reduced; memory impairment.

(21) Describe the effects of stress on human behaviour.

Irrationality and irritability.

(22) Explain how stress is cumulative and how stress from one situation can be transferred to a different situation.

(23) Explain how successful completion of a stressful task will reduce the amount of stress experienced when a similar situation arises in the future.

Learning from a situation makes it easier the next time. Perceived ability will have increased.

(24) Describe the effect of human underload/overload on effectiveness in the flight crew compartment.

Both reduce performance

(25) List sources and symptoms of human underload.

High levels of automation. Hypo-vigilance, boredom, fatigue.

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040 03 06 05 Fatigue and stress management

(01) Explain the term ‘fatigue’ and differentiate between the two types of fatigue (short-term and chronic fatigue).

Tiredness. Short: temporary lack of sleep or intense work. Chronic: Deep-seated.

(02) Name the causes of short-term and chronic fatigue.

Above

(03) Identify the symptoms and describe the effects of fatigue.

E
Lack of energy
M
Degraded short term memory
M
Poor motor skills and increased reaction times.
C
Concentration
M
Mistakes
M
Mood swings
S
Lack of social interaction

(04) List the strategies that prevent or delay the onset of fatigue and hypovigilance

Actively involve yourself in the flight, mental calculations, running plan of action

(05) List and describe strategies for coping with stress factors and stress reactions.

(06) Distinguish between short-term and long-term methods of stress management.

(07) Give examples of short-term methods of stress management.

D
Direct action – change the relationship with the stressor.
I
Information seeking, try to understand stressor better.
I
Inhibition – do nothing. Unhealthy technique.
P
Palliative coping, reduce effect rather than eliminate cause.
S
Get support

(08) Give examples of long-term methods of coping with stress.

Biofeedback – measure your stress. Cognitive therapy, counselling.

(09) Describe the fatique risk management system (FRMS) as follows: a data-driven means of continuously monitoring and managing fatigue- related safety risks, based upon scientific principles and knowledge as well as operational experience that aims to ensure relevant personnel are performing at adequate levels of alertness.

Like SMS, looks at costs, safety and productivity.

Both SNS and FRMS a requirement for European airlines.

040 03 07 00 Advanced cockpit automation

040 03 07 01 Advantages and disadvantages

(01) Compare the two basic concepts of automation:

— as per Boeing, where the pilot remains the last operator;

Manual commands have the final say

— and as per Airbus, where automated systems can correct erroneous pilot action.

Automation intervenes in dangerous control movements

(02) Explain the fundamental restrictions of autoflight systems to be lack of creativity in unknown situations, and lack of personal motivation with regard to safety.

(03) List the principal strengths and weaknesses of pilot versus autopilot systems to be creativity, decision- making, prioritisation of tasks, safety attitude versus precision, reliability.

(04) Explain the ‘ironies of automation’: designers’ errors due to wrong interpretation of the data, leaving tasks to the pilot that are too complex to automate, loss of manual and cognitive skills of the pilot.

State the necessity for regular training flights as one possible countermeasure.

(05) Describe methods to overcome the drawbacks of autoflight systems to be loss of manual flying capabilities, additional workload through programming, risk of slips during programming, and hypovigilance during cruise.

040 03 07 02 Automation complacency

(01) State the main weaknesses in the monitoring of automatic systems to be hypovigilance during flight, and loss of flying skills.

(02) Explain some basic flight crew errors and terms that arise with the introduction of automation:

— passive monitoring;

Looking but not digesting

— blinkered concentration;

Focusing on one element

— confusion;

Loss of situation awareness by being out of the loop

— mode awareness.

Failure to monitor changes

(03) Explain how the method of call-outs counteracts ineffective monitoring of automatic systems.

Call out loud, to confirm action

(04) Define ‘complacency’.

Satisfaction resulting from lack of critical analysis

040 03 07 03 Working concepts

(01) Explain that the potential disadvantages of automation on crew communication are loss of awareness of input errors, flight modes, failure detection, failure comprehension, status of the aircraft and aircraft position.

(02) Explain how the negative effects of automation on pilots may be alleviated by degrading to a lower level of automation to recover comprehension of the flight status from VNAV/LNAV to ALT/HDG or even to manual flying.

(03) Interpret the role of automation with respect to flight safety regarding the basic principle of the use of manual versus autoflight in normal operations, frequent changes in the flight profile, and in abnormal situations.